Audio
Recordings -
by Howard Enis
I. Introduction and Definitions:
Sound recording involves the mechanical or electronic
detection of sounds
and their preservation in a storage medium usually
a disc, tape, or film. In
reproduction, or "playback," the encoded information
is recovered from the
storage medium, amplified, and fed to loudspeakers
or headphones that
re-create a facsimile of the original sound.
In modern recording, sound-pressure waves in the
air are detected by one or
more microphones that translate the sound waves
into electrical signals.
Signals from many microphones may be combined in
a "mixer" to produce a
finished recording. In contemporary music, electrical
signals corresponding
to desired sounds may be generated directly by a
synthesizer or computer and
combined with microphone signals. The synthesized
signals are transformed
into sound during playback.
Sound-reproduction equipment that is intended for
a special purpose, such as
a public-address system, may be deliberately limited
in volume level or
frequency range. Equipment intended to reproduce
music, however, is rated
according to the accuracy, or fidelity, of its reproduction.
Thus "high
fidelity" systems are those which faithfully reproduce
the original sound of
music, authentically re-creating its full frequency
range, dynamic range
(loud/soft contrast), and timbre (tone quality).
Sound recordings and reproduction systems are characterized
by the number of
"channels" of sound that are provided: one (monophonic),
two (stereophonic),
or more (for "surround" sound).
Storage Media.
Sound recordings are classified into five general
categories
according to the technology employed to store the
audio signal. For brevity
sake I will be discussing the three formats that
are currently most
prevalent in a Public Library or School Library
Media Center.
Mechanical Recording. This technology is the
basis of all phonograph
records. The audio signal is represented by an undulating
groove in the
surface of a cylinder or disc. For playback, the
record spins on a turntable
while a lightweight "stylus" traces the pattern
of wiggles in the groove.
Magnetic Recording. The basis of all tape
recording (both audio and video),
magnetic techniques are also used for the sound
tracks of some 70-mm
motion-picture films. In all cases, a plastic tape
or film carries a thin
coating of magnetic material, usually iron oxide,
on which a varying
magnetic pattern is imposed during recording.
Optical Disc. This is the basis of the compact
disc (CD) and the videodisc.
The signal is represented by a pattern of microscopic
pits along a
reflective spiral track in the disc. In playback,
the pattern is "read" by a
small laser and photocell.
II. Brief History
The Phonograph Record
The phonograph record was the first successful medium
for capturing,
preserving, and reproducing sound. It remained the
most popular recording
medium for nearly a century. As of the year 2000
vinyl phonograph records
only accounted for .05% of all consumer sales (RIAA),
however many libraries
still maintain a collection of vinyl and many people
still own and operate
phonographs and turntables.
While various ideas for sound recording were explored
in theory through much
of the Nineteenth Century, the first known success
in building a functioning
device was that of Thomas Edison (aided by machinist
John Kruesi). Edison's
phonograph recorded and played back sound mechanically,
using a metal stylus
and a cylinder wrapped with tin foil. As the cylinder
was rotated, sound
directed into a horn would vibrate a diaphragm connected
to the stylus, and
the diaphragm's movements were written as a groove
in the foil. On playback,
the movement of the stylus in the groove made the
diaphragm vibrate,
effectively turning the cone into a speaker.
Edison's device yielded harsh sound and did not hold
up to repeated plays,
and after a period of initial interest it failed
to catch on with business
(for dictation) or consumers. But that did not discourage
other inventors
from trying their hand. By the mid-1880s, Alexander
Graham Bell (along with
Chichester Bell and Charles Tainter) had developed
a wax-coated cardboard
cylinder - the graphophone - with better sound quality,
and Edison had
responded with the wax-based phonogram. By the end
of the decade Edison was
releasing the first commercial sound recordings,
and a sort of early jukebox
named the nickelodeon had been developed by Lewis
Glass of the American
Phonograph Company.
As mechanical recordings on cylinders established
a commercial presence at
the close of the century, experiments continued
in alternative approaches to
sound playback. Early research in magnetic recording
was carried out by
Edison, by Bell and Tainter, by Oberlin Smith, and
by Valdemar Poulsen, who
later developed the wire recorder. Edison also looked
into wireless
transmission, as did Amos Dolbear and Guglielmo
Marconi, who was able to
develop his ideas into what we now know as radio.
In the record industry, meanwhile, Emile Berliner
pushed the idea of
recording and playback from discs rather than cylinders,
allowing the
mass-production of sound recordings. Berliner's
shellac discs sounded better
and lasted longer than wax cylinders. During the
first decades of the
Twentieth Century, cylinders slowly faded from the
scene while disc
recordings became the standard.
Electronic Recording
By the mid-1920s, advancements in areas such as microphones
and loudspeakers
that had been spurred by the advent of radio were
also being applied to
recording. Electrical recording and playback systems
developed at AT&T's
Bell Labs were introduced by Western Electric in
1925. Long-playing records
were demonstrated by Brunswick in 1925 and again
by RCA in the early 1930s.
At the same time, German scientist Fritz Pfleumer
was learning how to apply
iron-oxide particles to paper tape for magnetic
recording, and motion
picture sound moved from the lab to theaters.
Despite these promising technical developments, the
1930s were a tough
period for a record industry that found itself competing
against the free
content offered by radio in a time of deep economic
distress. The industry,
dominated by 78 RPM records with a playing time
of just three to five
minutes per side, bottomed out in the early 1930s.
Fortunes began to revive
somewhat in the mid-1930s, due largely to the popularity
of newly-introduced
juke boxes. The outlook brightened further by the
end of the decade, but
continued to be hampered in the 1940s by wartime
diversion of materials, as
well as by a lengthy dispute with the musicians'
union over recording
royalties.
With both the Great Depression and the Second World
War behind them, more
and more Americans in the post-war years had the
time and the money to enjoy
prerecorded music in their homes. The late 1940s
began a period of both
innovation and standardization that changed the
technology of prerecorded
music and revitalized the record industry.
New Record Formats
From a technical standpoint, the industry's first
big post-war event was the
1948 introduction of the vinyl LP, developed under
the direction of Peter
Goldmark at Columbia Records. The 12-inch, 33 1/3
RPM LP offered playback of
more than 20 minutes per side, and was far more
durable than the dominant
"78s" of the time.
RCA Victor followed Columbia's move with the introduction
of the plastic
7-inch 45 RPM record in 1949, and the two formats,
requiring record players
with different speeds, competed for the next few
years. Spurred by the
impact of consumer confusion on record sales, the
industry came together in
the early 1950s around the concept of LPs for albums
(collections of songs)
and 45s for singles.
The Recording Industry Association of Americas (RIAA),
formed in 1952,
facilitated the technical standardization of records
by bringing together
engineers from member companies to develop the RIAA
curve, a
frequency response specification for optimizing
the performance of
phonographic playback systems. Record industry sales
nearly tripled in the
decade following the introduction of the LP, while
78s had faded from the scene
by 1955.
In 1958 another major format change began with adoption
of a world standard
for stereo records, based on the work of Columbia
Records scientist A.D.
Blumlein during the 1930s. While some early stereo
recordings relied on
gimmicks to show off the new system, it was quickly
evident that stereo
added greatly to music listening enjoyment. Release
in both mono and stereo
became the norm, and by the end of the 1960s mono
had been essentially
phased out.
Surround Sound. In stereo playback, each ear hears
sounds from both
loudspeakers. To compensate for this blending of
the two channels, recording
engineers often use a much wider microphone spacing
than the width of the
head or choose microphones having a more sharply
directional pickup pattern
than the ears. Entrepreneur John C. Koss discovered
that listening to stereo
recordings through headphones yielded spacious wraparound
sound that seemed
to envelop the listener, with exaggerated left/right
separation. "Binaural"
sound, recorded with microphones on a dummy head,
avoids this exaggerated
separation and provides a uniquely realistic, "you
are there" perspective.
In the early 1970s four-channel "quadraphonic" recordings
were launched in
an attempt to provide similar realism through loudspeakers.
Marketed in
three incompatible formats with inadequately developed
technology,
quadraphonic LPs were a commercial flop. But quadraphonic
circuits were
combined with full-frequency-range recording to
create Dolby Stereo (with
surround sound) for motion pictures. In the late
1980s this surround
playback became popular in audio/video "home theater"
installations, and
producers began using the same process for music
recordings. In the 1990s a
five-channel surround format was adopted as the
worldwide standard for the
next decade.
Tape Recording
Prerecorded cassette tapes have fallen from 49.8%
of the consumer market
share in 1991 to under 5% of purchased audio format
in 2000. However as
with vinyl records, many libraries still maintain
a collection of tapes and
users still own and operate equipment.
Developed at BASF in Germany and first shown publicly
in 1935, magnetic tape
recording was largely ignored in the United States
for the next decade. That
changed, however, when Bing Crosby and Ampex Corporation
took an interest in
Magnetophon recorders brought home to the US by
serviceman John Mullin after
the war. Recording on tape allowed performances
to be edited rather than
played perfectly in one pass. And multitrack tape
recording eventually
allowed the overdubbing of performances against
existing tracks, expanding
creative freedom.
While reel-to-reel tape formats were the standard
for professional use,
prerecorded reel-to-reel tapes proved difficult
and inconvenient for
consumers, and never amounted to more than a niche
market. In 1963, however,
Philips demonstrated a format that would bring tape
to the masses: the audio
compact cassette.
Like Edison's phonograph some eighty years before,
cassettes were originally
marketed>
A rival tape format, the 8-track stereo cartridge,
was introduced in 1966,
and found broad success in automotive applications.
Cassettes proved less
cumbersome and more reliable, however, and their
versatility was enhanced
with the 1979 introduction of the Sony Walkman portable.
The cassette's
dominance of the prerecorded tape market was complete
by 1983, by which time
record labels ceased production of prerecorded 8-tracks.
By the early 1980s the prerecorded music market had
settled into two main
formats: vinyl records (LPs and 45s) for the home
(and for radio play), and
compact cassettes for portables and car stereos.
But digital recording and
optical playback technologies were being refined
in the lab, promising a
profound departure from the past. By 1982 Sony and
Philips were ready to
launch the Compact Disc, ushering in the digital
age.
Digital Playback and the CD
The compact disc represents 89.3% of the audio consumer
market today (RIAA
2000). The CD (and other digital disc formats like
the DVD) will probably
be the dominant format in libraries for the next
few years to come.
From Edison's first foil cylinders, audio recording
technology had been
based on converting sound waves in the air into
a physical transcription or
magnetic pattern analogous to the waveform of the
original sounds. With
digital recording, however, the amplitude of the
original waveform is
sampled at regular intervals (tens of thousands
of times per second), and
numeric values are assigned to those samples, which
in turn are transmitted
or stored as binary code. On playback, the values
of the samples are used to
reconstruct the original waveform.
In the case of the Compact Disc, the sample rate
is 44.1 kHz, while the
resolution of each sample is 16 bits. The digital
code of sampled sound is
stored on disc as a series of non-reflective "pits"
in an otherwise
reflective surface (the "land"), and is read by
a laser pickup. Able to
store at least 74 minutes of uninterrupted high-fidelity
sound, and free of
the surface noise which can mar LP playback, the
CD also offers random
access to conveniently take listeners directly to
any track. The format
first caught the attention of classical music lovers,
then grew rapidly to
become the dominant release format within its first
decade on the market.
The rise of the CD coincided with growing interest
in home computing, and
CD-ROM formats for personal computers were first
introduced in 1986. By the
mid-1990s, computers were finally powerful enough
to begin taking advantage
of CD-ROM's multimedia capabilities, and parties
both in and out of the
music industry began looking for ways to add graphics,
text, and video to
music CDs. The RIAA engineering committee helped
record labels understand
the pros and cons of various proposed technologies,
and ultimately developed
a specification for Enhanced CD. But incompatibilities
in the way computers
handled playback of the discs ultimately undermined
efforts to get the
format off the ground.
Digital Recording Formats
Spurred by the public's enthusiasm for CDs and cassettes,
consumer
electronics manufacturers began looking for ways
to combine the fidelity of
the former with the recordability of the latter.
But cassettes had already
enabled both widespread home taping and wholesale
copying by organized
pirates, which were depriving artists, songwriters,
publishers and labels of
the revenues they depend on for their livelihood.
The music industry, as well as other organizations
representing the interests of those
who create and distribute prerecorded music, was
especially concerned by
digital recording because there is no generation
loss in digital transfers -
a copy sounds the same as the original. Without
limits on unauthorized
copying, a digital audio recording format could
easily encourage the
pirating of master-quality recordings.
As a consortium of hardware manufacturers developed
the R-DAT (rotary head
digital audio tape) format, the RIAA and similar
international groups tried
to encourage the adoption of copying safeguards.
Unable to reach agreement
with the manufacturers, most labels did not release
any prerecorded software
in support of the format when it was introduced
to consumers in 1987.
The R-DAT launch initiated several years of controversy
over digital
copying, culminating in an agreement in July 1989
obligating both sides to
support legislation mandating the inclusion in consumer
digital recorders of
serial copying technology, such as SCMS (Serial
Copy Management System).
Developed by Philips, SCMS recognizes a "copyright
flag" encoded on a
prerecorded original (such as a CD), and writes
that flag into the subcode
of digital copies (such as a transfer from a CD
to a DAT tape). The presence
of the flag prevents an SCMS-equipped recorder from
digitally copying the
copy, thus breaking the chain of perfect digital
cloning.
For a variety of reasons -- including the difficulty
of mass producing
prerecorded tapes -- DAT never caught on as a consumer
format, though it has
been widely adopted for professional and "pro-sumer"
applications. In the
early 1990s, two rival digital home recording formats
(each of which
included SCMS) were introduced, both targeting the
replacement market for
the cassette, which was beginning to decline in
popularity. Philips' DCC
(Digital Compact Cassettes) took a tape-based approach,
while Sony's Mini
Disc used magneto-optical recording and playback
from a disc. Neither
format, however, achieved widespread popularity,
leaving the CD with the
bulk of prerecorded music sales, the cassette with
a fair-sized minority,
and the once-dominant LP with a tiny niche market.
III Unique Characteristics
Phonograph Records
Most of the phonograph records found at the library will be in the LP/Record Album format. Each side of an album holds a maximum of about 22 minutes of audio recording. To play an entire record album the disc must be flipped over and repositioned on the turntable in order to play the second side after the first side is complete. Audio pieces or ‘tracks’ can be played repeatedly by manually lifting the tonearm and stylus to the next ‘band’ on the surface.
The paper label on each record often includes written information as to the content of the record as do the album liner notes on the records jacket. Often the record album will contain artwork, photographs, and graphic designs. The record album is often considered to be intrinsically very pleasing.
Audio Tapes
Most of the tapes found in today's libraries will be in the cassette format. A cassette can hold up to 180 total minutes of magnetic recording. Information is stored on two sides of the tape and it requires two passes to complete the program. It is usually fairly difficult to find single pieces or ‘tracks’ on a cassette tape. Some of the more sophisticated cassette tape decks are equipped with sensors that can find single tracks.
Cassettes usually come packaged in plastic cases with fitted ‘J cards’. These cardboard inserts usually feature much of the same content and artwork that would be found on a record album or CD.
Compact Discs
A CD can store up to 74 minutes of digital data. The CD is a fairly simple piece of plastic, about 1.2 millimeters thick with a thin reflective aluminum layer sprayed over the disc followed by another layer of acrylic to protect the other layers. Microscopic bumps or pits are impressed into the plastic. This is where the recording is stored. A CD has a single spiral track of data circling from the inside of the disc to the outside. A laser reads the ‘bumps and pits’ and converts these bits of information to sound.
The CD is usually stored in a plastic hinged case
referred to as a ‘jewel box’. The box contains slots for paper foldout
liner notes and artwork. Sometimes the CD is stored in a simple plastic
sleeve or boxed in a multiple volume ‘box set’.
IV & V Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages of Phonograph Records
Phonograph records were the dominant audio formats
for more than a century.
There may be a lot of records in your library. Some
of these older
recordings may not be readily available in the digital
format.
Many people still own and operate phonograph equipment
and it is still
readily available for purchase.
Some analog purists and Hi-Fi buffs still prefer
the sonic qualities of the
phonograph record. They feel that vinyl records
carry a warm sound not easy
to reproduce on a digital recording. Phonograph
records are still popular
as a 'cult item' among purveyors of hip hop and
underground rock music.
Although somewhat fragile, the lifespan of a properly stored vinyl phonograph record may exceed hundreds of years.
Disadvantages of Phonograph Records
The market for 'new' Phonograph records has shrunk
considerably. Most of
the recordings on the market today are aimed towards
collectors or special
'niche' markets.
Phonograph equipment is not nearly as easy to find
as it was a few years
ago. Many people are not aware that it is available
at all.
Phonograph records can be easily mishandled and damaged.
Scratches / mars
and dirt on the surface of the record will hamper
the quality of the sound.
Records will wear from simple use. Poorly stored
records can warp or crack
and become damaged.
Advantages of Audio Tapes
Smaller form factor than records.
Equipment for playing tapes is generally compact, portable, easy to use.
Quality of reproduction is relatively constant through
repeated use when
compared to a vinyl record.
Instant playback capability
Easily edited
Tapes may be erased and reused
Duplication is economical and easy.
Easily circulated.
Tapes can be used in conjunction with several media formats.
Up to 180 minutes worth of info can stored on one cassette tape
Disadvantages of Audio Tapes
Inferior sound quality when compared to records or
CD's plus degradation and
wear issues when compared with a digital CD.
Small format can be easily lost or misplaced.
Average lifespan of a cassette tape is only about 10-15 years due to the chemical instability of the medium.
Difficult to clean, restore, or repair.
Can be accidentally erased through demagnetization.
Advantages of Compact Discs
Premium sound capabilities
Portable medium with small form factor
Cannot be easily damaged, erased, or tampered with (although degradation is possible – see below).
Ease of use – equipment can quickly select tracks, repeat or replay small pieces of recordings, etc.
Backwards compatiblity with DVD.
Properly stored CD-ROM may last up to 50 years. Not as long as a phonograph record, but much longer than magnetic tape.
Disadvantages of CD
Some early digital recordings were very inferior sounding when compared to original analog recordings.
Many durability issues. CD’s are not indestructible. They can be damaged by heat, sunlight, and magnetic fields. They often cannot be repaired easily.
CD's are audio time bombs. CD's will degrade with time due to the inherent instability of the physical media. Loss of all audio functionality will be sudden and immediate, there is no slow loss of quality and it is impossible to predict when it will happen. Experts say it might be as soon as 15 years depending on how the media is treated.
Multiple pieces, cases, inserts, etc can be difficult
if not impossible to replace
VI Selection Criteria
Unless there is a confirmed need in the community for audiophile vinyl LP pressings (i.e.: a small band of enthusiastic neighborhood hi-fi snobs) you will probably not be purchasing new vinyl albums for your library. Most of the audio recordings you would consider will be in the CD or cassette tape format.
Your criteria may be based more so on content than physical format. Most of the recording you would consider purchasing will be music or audio books. I have also added a short list of other types
MUSIC
Selection and Access
Determine if recreational materials will be purchased or if only instructional/curriculum-related music is appropriate for the Library or LMC. Determine the format of the materials to be ordered by the available playback equipment to the user or in the school and by the physical durability and quality of the recording of the item (ie. CD’s almost always beat cassette tapes,)
AUDIO BOOKS
Selection and Access
Determine if free acquisition is available for qualified students or users. Vendors include the New York State Talking Book and Braille Library <http://www.nysl.nysed.gov/talk.htm>. The Library of Congress website provides acquisition information for other states. These free items can only be used by the qualified student or user. Consider which equipment will be required to use audio books and set circulation policies accordingly (ie. will it be checked out with a cassette player or headphones, or is there a listening center in the library?)
Other formats to consider;
Spoken Word – Poetry
Historical interviews and/or speeches
Historical radio broadcasts
Comedy recordings
Nature Recordings and/or sound effects
Instructional programs such as language skills or self-help recordings.
VII Evaluative Review Sources
Periodicals
Audio:File
Billboard
Booklist
DISCoveries
Goldmine
High Fidelity
Library Journal
Rolling Stone
School Library Journal
Spin
Stereo Review
Books
All Music Guides
AMG All Music Guides (classified by Rock, Jazz, Blues, Classical, etc.)
Audio Books on the Go: a listners Guide to books on Cassettte by Audio File
The NPR Guide to Building a Classical CD Selection
The Penguin Guide to Jazz
The Penguin Guide to Compact Discs
Websites
Both Sides Now - Album Discographies
YALSA Selected Audio Books for Young Adults
VIII Non-Evaluative Sources
Audiocassette & Compact Disk Finder, Plexus Publishing
LibraryLand AudioVisual: Talking Books/Audio Books
Simon Says/Books Aloud from Simon and Schuster
IX Handling, Storage, and Care
HANDLING
| General | Do not touch the playing surface(s)
of any recording.
Clean hands before handling recordings. |
| Discs | Handle all grooved discs (78s, 45s, LPs, and acetate discs) by their edge and label areas only. Handle compact discs by outer edge and center hole only. |
| Tape (Cassettes,
Audio and Video) |
Handle by outer shell, only. Do not place fingers or any other materials into openings. |
STORAGE
| General | Keep all discs and tapes, both open-reel and cassettes, standing upright, on edge. Store cylinders standing on their ends. Do not lay any recording flat, not even audio or videocassettes. |
| Environment | Keep all storage and use areas clean. |
| Medium-term
Storage |
(Materials to be preserved for a minimum of 10 years, ANSI IT9.13, 1996) Storage areas should be kept at a constant 65 to 70° F and 45 to 50% Relative Humidity (RH). Widely fluctuating temperature or RH severely shortens the life span of all recordings. Environmental conditions should not fluctuate more that ±10 F or ±10% RH over a 24-hour period. Keep recordings away from light, especially sunlight and unshielded fluorescent lights. |
| Long-term Storage | (Materials having permanent value) Storage areas should be kept at a constant 45 to 50° F or colder (do not store magnetic tapes below 46° F as it may cause lubrication separation from the tape binder) and 20 to 30% RH for magnetic tapes (open reel and cassette) and 45 to 50% RH for all others. Widely fluctuating temperature or RH severely shortens the life span of all recordings. Environmental conditions shall not fluctuate more that ±5° F or ±5% RH over a 24 hour period. Store in dark areas except when being accessed, being sure to keep recordings away from UV sources (unshielded fluorescent tubes and sunlight.) |
| Tape Demagnetization | In general, demagnetization is not a problem in most situations. For an added margin of safety to prevent demagnetization keep all tape (open reels and cassettes) away from potential sources of demagnetization, such as loudspeakers, most of which have sizable magnets in them. Do not set tapes on top of or leaning against any equipment which can be a source of either magnetic fields or heat. Be careful about operating machines with electric motors (e.g., vacuum cleaners) next to tape storage areas. |
| Shelving | Recordings are surprisingly heavy. For example, LPs average between 35 and 45 pounds per shelf-foot; 78 rpm and acetate discs are even heavier. Because of their shape and the design of their packaging, recordings will concentrate their weight in the centerline of a shelf, which can cause some shelving to collapse. Make sure that the shelving you choose is solid and well constructed. |
| Discs | Must be shelved vertically. Ideally, disc shelving should have full-height and full-depth dividers, spaced 4 to 6 inches apart, and secured at top and bottom. Less than full-height dividers may contribute to warpage. Interfiling discs of different diameter may also cause warpage. |
| Tapes (Cassettes,
Audio and Video) |
Cassettes in water repellent plastic containers should be stored vertically "on edge," not flat. |
| Winding tapes | Contrary to what your local video-store may say, tapes, including cassettes, should not be stored in the rewound or fast-forwarded position. Ideally, play a tape completely through, then store it without rewinding. Rewind it just before playing it again. |
| Discs, vinyl (e.g. LPs) | A water-based record cleaning fluid is the most benign, but a fluid containing up to 20% isopropyl alcohol is more effective, especially on greasy contaminants. Vacuum cleaning machines for grooved disc recordings, such as the Nitty Gritty 3.5FI or the V.P.I. HW - 17F, are excellent. Otherwise, gently wipe the LP in a gentle spiral fashion, working out from the center to the edge, with the chosen cleaning solution and a soft, lint-free cloth. Rinse the washed disc with de-ionized water. Pat or blot the disc dry with clean, absorbent, lint-free cloth. |
| Discs, Optical (e.g. , CDs) | Use a very soft, clean, lint free cloth and the moisture from your breath and wipe in a radial motion from the center to the edge. |
| Tapes (to clean dirt, debris, dust) | If you have problems with mold or mildew on any recording, call for professional advice and information. |
PACKAGING, CONTAINERS
| Discs | Most record sleeves should be replaced
with a high density polyethylene such as DiscWasher V.R.P., Mobile Fidelity
Original Master Sleeve, or Nagaoka No. 102 Anti-Static Record Sleeve. If
an original paper sleeve contains text or graphics, the Nagaoka sleeves
are thin enough to fit inside the paper sleeve.
Some plastic or plastic-lined sleeves should not be used. As a rule of thumb, "bad" sleeves are clear and have a sticky or tacky feel whereas "good" sleeves are frosted in appearance and have a slippery feel. |
| Tape (Open reels) | Replace any reel which has a slotted hub. Only reels with unslotted hubs are acceptable for storage. Reels with slotted hubs may be used as take-up reels. |
PLAYBACK EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE
| Clean equipment (tape heads, guides, etc.) often and thoroughly with isopropyl alcohol and cotton swabs. Demagnetize tape decks periodically; if you are unsure about doing this leave it to a professional. Clean the phonograph stylus before playing each disc side using a densely packed bristle brush such as DiscWasher's SC-2 or LAST's stylus cleaning brush. Learn how to balance and set the tracking and anti-skating on your tone arm. Check the settings at least once a month or anytime you hear mistracking. |
X. Management Problems and Solutions
Many questions can be considered regarding the topic of Audio Recordings. Questions on issues like care, maintenance, storage, and acquisition can be answered by consulting some of the evaluative and non evaluative sources found within this document. Audio recordings may also fall prey to vandalism and theft as other library materials occasionally do. A sound security program should be included when developing an audio recording collection.
Organization and cataloging of audio recordings should suit the needs of the users and the institution. A public library may have a large audio collection available to be browsed by the general public. A SLMC might choose to keep materials behind the circ desk for safer keeping. An inner-city neighborhood library with a large patronage by Russian immigrants might consider developing a Russian AV. section where audio and video recordings in the Russian language could have a prominent spot.
Technology trends and format changes can often be a challenging issue when considering a libraries audio collection. When is it safe to purchase a new format, and drop an older one? Should the vinyl collection be abandoned? Do we stick with sonically preferred digital formats for music and rely on less expensive cassette tapes for recorded books? These are difficult questions to answer. Surely a constant polling of the library's users and a keeping a keen watch on format trends would be the best way to exercise these difficult judgement calls.
XI. Web pages Relevant to Audio Recordings
Other than the web pages listed in sections VII & VIII or the bibliography, here are some sites that I found interesting:
A History of Sound Recording History
Audio & Video – Audio Producers & Suppliers-Audiobooks, The Librarians Yellow Pages, Accessed March 21, 2001.
Magnetic Tape Storage and Handeling- A Guide for Libraries and Archives, Dr. John W.C. Van Bogart, Accessed April 6, 2001
Whoops, there goes another CD-ROM
XII. Bibliography
Berger, M. The Stereo-HiFi Handbook, Lothrop, Lee and Sheperd Books, NY, 1979.
Comparison of Vinyl and CD Audio: Buying and Caring for Vinyl
Davis, Trisha. "The evolution of selection activities for electronic resources", .Library Trends Winter 1997: 391-403. InfoTrac. http://web…/purl=rcl_GRC-O-A etc
Dearborn, L. Good Sound, Quill-William Morrow, NY, 1987.
Miller, R. The Incredible Music Machine, Quartet Visual Arts Books, London England, 1982
Preservation: Cylinder Disc and Tape Care in a Nutshell, The Library of Congress.
Read, O. and Welch, W. From Tin Foil To Stereo, Howard W, Sams and Company, Indianapolis, 1959
riaa/home
Recording Industry Association of America
Sweeney, D. Demystifying Compact Discs- A Guide
to Digital Audio, TAB books Inc. Blue Ridge Summit, PA. 1968
The End?
